Cornell University Johnson Graduate School Of Management

Traditional finance theories assume that financial market participants are rational, and argue that the financial market is always efficient and prices are always right.Behavioral finance, on the other hand, argues that securities market prices can be wrong, and that a lot of financial market phenomena can plausibly be understood only under the assumption that some market participants are not fully rational. This course gives an introduction to behavioral finance, and discusses its applications in investment management. We will first introduce the conceptual framework of behavioral finance, and then apply the framework to the study of individual stock trading and portfolio management. Topics covered in the course include: limits of arbitrage (i. e. why stock market mispricing can persist), investor psychology and behavior (and how to overcome our own irrational biases in stock trading), stock index predictability and market timing, stock portfolios that were shown to beat the market (including value, momentum, size, earnings quality, volume, earnings management, and many other effects), and applications of behavioral finance in quantitative asset management. As a summary of the course, we will apply the conceptual framework of behavioral finance to the understanding of China’s financial market (as an example of emerging markets).PREREQUISITES You must have taken an introductory level finance course that covers basic topics such as stocks and bonds, the CAPM, and the efficient market hypothesis. COMMUNICATING WITH ME My office hours are Monday, 4:30-6:00pm. You should also feel free to communicate with me by email. 1 TEXTBOOK AND SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS The required textbook is Richard H. Thaler (ed. ), Advances in Behavioral Finance, Vol. II, Russell Sage Foundation and Princeton University Press, 2005. For each session, there will be required reading and (occasionally) optional reading.All required readings are either included in the course packet or wil l be handed out in class. All optional readings will be posted on Blackboard. All classroom handouts will also be posted on Blackboard. The following books are optional supplementary readings and can be purchased in many bookstores or from online vendors. Behavioral Finance: A User’s Guide, by James Montier, Wiley Finance Series, 2002. ? An introduction of behavioral finance from a practitioner’s perspective. Advances in Behavioral Finance, edited by Richard Thaler. The first volume preceding our textbook. Contains some important early academic articles on behavioral finance. Irrational Exuberance, by Robert Shiller. ? A great book on the Internet bubble. The Myth of the Rational Market – A History of Risk, Reward, and Delusion on Wall Street, by Justin Fox (2009). ? On the history of efficient market theory and behavioral finance. Behavioral Finance and Wealth Management – How to Build Optimal Portfolio That Account for Investor Biases, by Michael M. Pom pian. ? Written from the perspective of a wealth manager and practitioner.When Genius Failed, by Roger Lowenstein. ? An account of LTCM failure. CLASS PREPARATION There will be a reading, as well as an occasional case assignment, to prepare for each session. You are expected to be prepared for each session by doing the reading and working on the assignment for the case. Each individual is required to turn in the case assignment prior to the class during which the case is discussed. Those listed in the syllabus are subject to change during the semester, which will be announced in class when applicable. 2 GRADINGThe grade will be based on problem sets (10%), class participation and case assignments (10%), an exam (50%), and the final individual term project (30%). PROBLEM SETS Three problem sets will be assigned during the course, with the following preliminary schedule: Problem Set 1 Problem Set 2 Problem Set 3 Assignment Date 10/17 (Wed) – Session 2 10/29 (Mon) – Sessi on 5 11/7 (Wed) – Session 8 Due Date 10/24 (Wed) – Session 4 11/5 (Mon) – Session 7 11/ 14 (Wed) – Session 10 Problem sets are not included in the course packet, but will be handed out in class.Late submissions will not be accepted. You may work with other students in the class (from either section) for all the problem sets. (Of course, there is no reason to believe that an organized group is the best approach for everyone. ) A team of people need only submit one copy of their solution for a particular problem set. However, the number of students submitting one problem set solution is limited to no more than four. Every member of a group submitting a problem set solution will receive the same grade on that problem set. Solutions to each problem set will be made available.Grades on problem sets will be recorded by giving a â€Å"check-plus,† â€Å"check,† or â€Å"check minus. † Typically, the problem sets will not be discussed in clas s. EXAM There will be a (closed-book) in-class exam on Monday, November 19. TERM PROJECT A term project is the final requirement for the course. A detailed assignment on the term project will be handed out during the semester. Each individual needs to submit a written term project (into a box marked â€Å"NBA 5980† in 304 Sage Hall) no later than 1pm, December 6 (Thursday). ATTENDANCE POLICIES As mentioned above, class participation is a factor in determining the final grade.It is expected that all students attend all classes. It is also expected that students will be on time for class and will not disrupt the class by leaving early or by leaving and returning to class. We recognize that there are medical and other special circumstances that may cause a student to miss a class. Special circumstances may also arise that cause a student to miss part of a class. If such circumstances arise, students should contact the instructor (preferably by e-mail) and explain why it was nece ssary to miss part or all of a class session.This should be done before the absence if the absence is foreseen in advance and as soon as possible after the absence if the absence was unanticipated. Students who miss parts of class sessions or class sessions in their entirety without reasonable justification should expect that their class participation grade may be adversely affected in a significant way. 3 Schedule of Sessions and Reading List (Note: Advances is the abbreviation for our textbook: Richard Thaler (ed. ), Advances in Behavioral Finance, Vol. II, Russell Sage Foundation and Princeton University Press, 2005. ) Session 1 0/15 (Mon) Topics: Introduction and Examples of Extreme Mispricing Overview of the course, efficient market hypothesis, and extreme examples of market mispricing. Advances (pp 1-2; 8-12), Chapter 1, sections 1; 2. 3 How Did Economists Get It So Wrong? by P. Krugman (in packet) Anomalies: The Law of One Price, by Lamont-Thaler (in packet) Greenspan Concede s Error in Regulatory View (NYT) (in packet) Ignoring the Oracles, by Justin Lahart (in packet) Has Financial Development Made the World Riskier? by Raghu Rajan (2005) (posted on Blackboard) Advances (pp 102-169), Chapters 3-4Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 2 10/17 (Wed) Topics: Limits of Arbitrage LTCM and convergence bets, noise trader risk and other reasons for limits of arbitrage. Advances (pp 3-8), Chapter 1, sections 2. 1-2. 2 HBS Case: Long-Term Capital Management, L. P. (A) (in packet) Assignment on the Case of Long-Term Capital Management (to be submitted at the beginning of class on 10/17) How the Eggheads Cracked, by Michael Lewis (in packet) Advances (pp 79-101), Chapter 2 (academic and theoretical) Required Reading: Assignment: Optional Reading:Session 3 10/22 (Mon) Topics: Investor Psychology: Overcoming Our Own Biases Common human psychological biases in beliefs and risk preferences. How to overcome our own biases in stock trading? Advances (pp 12-22), Cha pter 1, section 3 Aspects of Investor Psychology, by Kahneman-Riepe (in packet) Required Reading: 4 Session 4 10/24 (Wed) Topics: Behavior of Individual Investors Behavior of individual investors, home bias and naive diversification, individual buying and selling decisions, disposition effects, individuals vs. institutions.Advances (pp 50-56), Chapter 1, section 7 Advances (pp 543-569), Chapter 15 Advances (pp 570-601), Chapter 16 Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 5 10/29 (Mon) Topics: Stock Index: Predictability and Market Timing Stock index-return predictability, equity premium puzzle, market timing and tactical asset allocation Advances (pp 173-201), Chapter 5 Change Agent: How Greenspan Finally Came to Terms †¦, by Schlesinger (in packet) Advances (pp 22-35), Chapter 1, section 4 (academic and theoretical) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 6 10/31 (Wed) Topics: Anomalies in Stock Portfolio ReturnsPortfolios that beat the market (even after adjusting for beta); the price effect of investor mis-reactions, momentum and reversal, post-earning-announcement drifts, post-corporate-event returns Advances (pp 35-41), Chapter 1, section 5. 0 Does the Stock Market Overreact? by DeBondt-Thaler (in packet) Advances (pp 353-388), Chapter 10 Required Reading: 5 Session 7 11/5 (Mon) Topics: Value and Momentum – Theories and Explanations Explanations of value and momentum effect; combining value and momentum; using volume to improve return predictability Advances (pp 41-47), Chapter 1, sections 5. -5. 3 (theoretical) Contagious Speculation and a Cure for Cancer, by Huberman and Regev (in packet) Price Momentum and Trading Volume, by Lee and Swaminathan (on Blackboard) All the News That’s Fit to Reprint, by Tetlock (on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 8 11/7 (Wed) Topics: Earnings Quality and Corporate Governance How to measure earnings quality? How to rank firms’ corporate governance? Can we use them to p redict stock returns? Do Stock Prices Fully Reflect Information in Accruals and Cash Flows About Future Earnings? y Sloan (in packet) Corporate Governance and Equity Prices, by Gompers, Ishii, and Metrick (posted on Blackboard) Earnings Quality and Stock Returns, by Chan, Chan, Jegadeesh, and Lakonishok (posted on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 9 11/12 (Mon) Topics: Effect of Short-Sale Constraints on Stock Prices The asymmetry between buying stocks and shorting stocks; the costs and risks of short-selling stocks; disagreement of valuations among investors, short-sale constraints, trading volumes, and their effects on stock prices Read the Wikipedia coverage of stock short selling: http://en. ikipedia. org/wiki/Short_(finance) Disagreement and the Stock Market, by Hong-Stein (in packet) Short Sale Constraints and Overpricing, by Lamont (posted on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: 6 Session 10 11/14 (Wed) Required Reading: Guest Speaker TBA None EXAM: 11/19 (Mon) 11/21(Wed): Monday, November 19, in class. No class, Thanksgiving Break Session 11 11/26 (Mon) Topics: Applications of Behavioral Finance in Asset Management Do value and momentum still work? What happened in August 2007?Discussion of issues in practical applications of portfolio strategies based on anomalies in behavioral finance Papers Study August Crisis, by Anderson (in packet) What Happened to the Quants in August 2007? by Khandani and Lo (posted on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 12 11/28 (Wed) Topics: Application: Understanding the Chinese Stock Market (As an Example of Emerging Markets) Try to appreciate that many other markets around the world are quite different from the US stock market; understanding the Chinese stock market as an example of emerging markets. None Required Reading: 7 Cornell University Johnson Graduate School Of Management Traditional finance theories assume that financial market participants are rational, and argue that the financial market is always efficient and prices are always right.Behavioral finance, on the other hand, argues that securities market prices can be wrong, and that a lot of financial market phenomena can plausibly be understood only under the assumption that some market participants are not fully rational. This course gives an introduction to behavioral finance, and discusses its applications in investment management. We will first introduce the conceptual framework of behavioral finance, and then apply the framework to the study of individual stock trading and portfolio management. Topics covered in the course include: limits of arbitrage (i. e. why stock market mispricing can persist), investor psychology and behavior (and how to overcome our own irrational biases in stock trading), stock index predictability and market timing, stock portfolios that were shown to beat the market (including value, momentum, size, earnings quality, volume, earnings management, and many other effects), and applications of behavioral finance in quantitative asset management. As a summary of the course, we will apply the conceptual framework of behavioral finance to the understanding of China’s financial market (as an example of emerging markets).PREREQUISITES You must have taken an introductory level finance course that covers basic topics such as stocks and bonds, the CAPM, and the efficient market hypothesis. COMMUNICATING WITH ME My office hours are Monday, 4:30-6:00pm. You should also feel free to communicate with me by email. 1 TEXTBOOK AND SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS The required textbook is Richard H. Thaler (ed. ), Advances in Behavioral Finance, Vol. II, Russell Sage Foundation and Princeton University Press, 2005. For each session, there will be required reading and (occasionally) optional reading.All required readings are either included in the course packet or wil l be handed out in class. All optional readings will be posted on Blackboard. All classroom handouts will also be posted on Blackboard. The following books are optional supplementary readings and can be purchased in many bookstores or from online vendors. Behavioral Finance: A User’s Guide, by James Montier, Wiley Finance Series, 2002. ? An introduction of behavioral finance from a practitioner’s perspective. Advances in Behavioral Finance, edited by Richard Thaler. The first volume preceding our textbook. Contains some important early academic articles on behavioral finance. Irrational Exuberance, by Robert Shiller. ? A great book on the Internet bubble. The Myth of the Rational Market – A History of Risk, Reward, and Delusion on Wall Street, by Justin Fox (2009). ? On the history of efficient market theory and behavioral finance. Behavioral Finance and Wealth Management – How to Build Optimal Portfolio That Account for Investor Biases, by Michael M. Pom pian. ? Written from the perspective of a wealth manager and practitioner.When Genius Failed, by Roger Lowenstein. ? An account of LTCM failure. CLASS PREPARATION There will be a reading, as well as an occasional case assignment, to prepare for each session. You are expected to be prepared for each session by doing the reading and working on the assignment for the case. Each individual is required to turn in the case assignment prior to the class during which the case is discussed. Those listed in the syllabus are subject to change during the semester, which will be announced in class when applicable. 2 GRADINGThe grade will be based on problem sets (10%), class participation and case assignments (10%), an exam (50%), and the final individual term project (30%). PROBLEM SETS Three problem sets will be assigned during the course, with the following preliminary schedule: Problem Set 1 Problem Set 2 Problem Set 3 Assignment Date 10/17 (Wed) – Session 2 10/29 (Mon) – Sessi on 5 11/7 (Wed) – Session 8 Due Date 10/24 (Wed) – Session 4 11/5 (Mon) – Session 7 11/ 14 (Wed) – Session 10 Problem sets are not included in the course packet, but will be handed out in class.Late submissions will not be accepted. You may work with other students in the class (from either section) for all the problem sets. (Of course, there is no reason to believe that an organized group is the best approach for everyone. ) A team of people need only submit one copy of their solution for a particular problem set. However, the number of students submitting one problem set solution is limited to no more than four. Every member of a group submitting a problem set solution will receive the same grade on that problem set. Solutions to each problem set will be made available.Grades on problem sets will be recorded by giving a â€Å"check-plus,† â€Å"check,† or â€Å"check minus. † Typically, the problem sets will not be discussed in clas s. EXAM There will be a (closed-book) in-class exam on Monday, November 19. TERM PROJECT A term project is the final requirement for the course. A detailed assignment on the term project will be handed out during the semester. Each individual needs to submit a written term project (into a box marked â€Å"NBA 5980† in 304 Sage Hall) no later than 1pm, December 6 (Thursday). ATTENDANCE POLICIES As mentioned above, class participation is a factor in determining the final grade.It is expected that all students attend all classes. It is also expected that students will be on time for class and will not disrupt the class by leaving early or by leaving and returning to class. We recognize that there are medical and other special circumstances that may cause a student to miss a class. Special circumstances may also arise that cause a student to miss part of a class. If such circumstances arise, students should contact the instructor (preferably by e-mail) and explain why it was nece ssary to miss part or all of a class session.This should be done before the absence if the absence is foreseen in advance and as soon as possible after the absence if the absence was unanticipated. Students who miss parts of class sessions or class sessions in their entirety without reasonable justification should expect that their class participation grade may be adversely affected in a significant way. 3 Schedule of Sessions and Reading List (Note: Advances is the abbreviation for our textbook: Richard Thaler (ed. ), Advances in Behavioral Finance, Vol. II, Russell Sage Foundation and Princeton University Press, 2005. ) Session 1 0/15 (Mon) Topics: Introduction and Examples of Extreme Mispricing Overview of the course, efficient market hypothesis, and extreme examples of market mispricing. Advances (pp 1-2; 8-12), Chapter 1, sections 1; 2. 3 How Did Economists Get It So Wrong? by P. Krugman (in packet) Anomalies: The Law of One Price, by Lamont-Thaler (in packet) Greenspan Concede s Error in Regulatory View (NYT) (in packet) Ignoring the Oracles, by Justin Lahart (in packet) Has Financial Development Made the World Riskier? by Raghu Rajan (2005) (posted on Blackboard) Advances (pp 102-169), Chapters 3-4Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 2 10/17 (Wed) Topics: Limits of Arbitrage LTCM and convergence bets, noise trader risk and other reasons for limits of arbitrage. Advances (pp 3-8), Chapter 1, sections 2. 1-2. 2 HBS Case: Long-Term Capital Management, L. P. (A) (in packet) Assignment on the Case of Long-Term Capital Management (to be submitted at the beginning of class on 10/17) How the Eggheads Cracked, by Michael Lewis (in packet) Advances (pp 79-101), Chapter 2 (academic and theoretical) Required Reading: Assignment: Optional Reading:Session 3 10/22 (Mon) Topics: Investor Psychology: Overcoming Our Own Biases Common human psychological biases in beliefs and risk preferences. How to overcome our own biases in stock trading? Advances (pp 12-22), Cha pter 1, section 3 Aspects of Investor Psychology, by Kahneman-Riepe (in packet) Required Reading: 4 Session 4 10/24 (Wed) Topics: Behavior of Individual Investors Behavior of individual investors, home bias and naive diversification, individual buying and selling decisions, disposition effects, individuals vs. institutions.Advances (pp 50-56), Chapter 1, section 7 Advances (pp 543-569), Chapter 15 Advances (pp 570-601), Chapter 16 Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 5 10/29 (Mon) Topics: Stock Index: Predictability and Market Timing Stock index-return predictability, equity premium puzzle, market timing and tactical asset allocation Advances (pp 173-201), Chapter 5 Change Agent: How Greenspan Finally Came to Terms †¦, by Schlesinger (in packet) Advances (pp 22-35), Chapter 1, section 4 (academic and theoretical) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 6 10/31 (Wed) Topics: Anomalies in Stock Portfolio ReturnsPortfolios that beat the market (even after adjusting for beta); the price effect of investor mis-reactions, momentum and reversal, post-earning-announcement drifts, post-corporate-event returns Advances (pp 35-41), Chapter 1, section 5. 0 Does the Stock Market Overreact? by DeBondt-Thaler (in packet) Advances (pp 353-388), Chapter 10 Required Reading: 5 Session 7 11/5 (Mon) Topics: Value and Momentum – Theories and Explanations Explanations of value and momentum effect; combining value and momentum; using volume to improve return predictability Advances (pp 41-47), Chapter 1, sections 5. -5. 3 (theoretical) Contagious Speculation and a Cure for Cancer, by Huberman and Regev (in packet) Price Momentum and Trading Volume, by Lee and Swaminathan (on Blackboard) All the News That’s Fit to Reprint, by Tetlock (on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 8 11/7 (Wed) Topics: Earnings Quality and Corporate Governance How to measure earnings quality? How to rank firms’ corporate governance? Can we use them to p redict stock returns? Do Stock Prices Fully Reflect Information in Accruals and Cash Flows About Future Earnings? y Sloan (in packet) Corporate Governance and Equity Prices, by Gompers, Ishii, and Metrick (posted on Blackboard) Earnings Quality and Stock Returns, by Chan, Chan, Jegadeesh, and Lakonishok (posted on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 9 11/12 (Mon) Topics: Effect of Short-Sale Constraints on Stock Prices The asymmetry between buying stocks and shorting stocks; the costs and risks of short-selling stocks; disagreement of valuations among investors, short-sale constraints, trading volumes, and their effects on stock prices Read the Wikipedia coverage of stock short selling: http://en. ikipedia. org/wiki/Short_(finance) Disagreement and the Stock Market, by Hong-Stein (in packet) Short Sale Constraints and Overpricing, by Lamont (posted on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: 6 Session 10 11/14 (Wed) Required Reading: Guest Speaker TBA None EXAM: 11/19 (Mon) 11/21(Wed): Monday, November 19, in class. No class, Thanksgiving Break Session 11 11/26 (Mon) Topics: Applications of Behavioral Finance in Asset Management Do value and momentum still work? What happened in August 2007?Discussion of issues in practical applications of portfolio strategies based on anomalies in behavioral finance Papers Study August Crisis, by Anderson (in packet) What Happened to the Quants in August 2007? by Khandani and Lo (posted on Blackboard) Required Reading: Optional Reading: Session 12 11/28 (Wed) Topics: Application: Understanding the Chinese Stock Market (As an Example of Emerging Markets) Try to appreciate that many other markets around the world are quite different from the US stock market; understanding the Chinese stock market as an example of emerging markets. None Required Reading: 7

Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Nigeria

Analysis of the challenges of religion and ethnicity on political stability in Nigeria’s fourth republic (1999-2011) INTRODUCTION Background to the Study Basically, Nigeria is a plural society and heterogeneous in virtually all the facet of life. The custom and tradition of Nigerians is so diverse to the extent that Nigeria as a country is now confronted with the problem of religion and ethnicity towards their political stability. The origin and history of ethnic conflict (societal wars and violence) can be traced from eternal (internal) state rivalry to external (physical).And its root cause is not very far from power competition and decision making over economic resources and other important human factor, like position. The implementation process has always involved more than one or two persons. In general concept, the author of this work traces conflict back to the first and early Patriarchal of human history and ever since then, there has been an increase (in various dimen sions) of Conflict in the face of human world. Some are personal (internal) conflict, family, community, and group, intellectual, state, national and international in nature, to mention but few.In conforming to this idea, Badawi (2006) in his statement titled â€Å"World Apart† stated thus, â€Å"indeed the greatest discord today is among the descendants of Abraham. These are the people of the book, the followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, who had in fact shared a common beginning in the religion of Abraham†. In shedding more light in the above statement, Badawi statement goes far beyond religion, rather, he was tracing one of the earliest source of conflict which Badawi mentioned the off-springs of the said Abraham.Even before Abraham, there had been conflict, so it is as old as human history down to the Abrahamic period, to ancient kingdoms, Dukes, and Kings. In about 88 B. C. , King Mithriadates VI of Pontus invaded Roman territory in Asian Minor. He advise d Asian debtors to kill their Roman creditors. Happy to reduce their credit card bills, the Asians massacred 80,000 Romans. Ethno-political conflicts have greatly shaped our present world and of course have its structural phenomenon, (William Easterly, 2001). For instances, the conflict we now call Israeli and Palestinian war, has been an ever-lengthening sort.The Assyrian, Babylonian war, by King Nebuchadnezzar of the hanging Garden in history, the Persia war, Alexander the Great (the Macedonian mad man in history), the German war of Adolf’s Hitler, the Roman wars, narrowing all these down, we came to the horn of African continent which seem to be an epidemic field of conflicts of diverse kinds till date. The giant-lion of African continent, just like the origin of conflict is said to have stated very old in human history, even so in the case of Nigeria, which can be traced to the colonial period of history. Conflict takes different sizes and shapes with diverse reasons and purposes.Majority of the conflicts takes time before their escalation and at such, could have been transformed right at their respective early stages. The history of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria is also traced back to the colonial transgressions that forced the ethnic groups of the northern and southern provinces to become an entity called Nigeria in 1914. In the case of Nigeria situation, disturbing history of colonialism, this generated hatred and conflict among different ethnic groups. The task of addressing this seed of conflict planted by the British has been a complex one.After weakening the former diverse kingdoms, Emperors, etc now called Nigeria and reordering the groups’ politics, the colonial powers failed in nation building and providing for the people's basic needs. Hence, unemployment, poverty increase, and due to these, conflict over scarce resources ensue. The Southern and Northern protectorates were also being amalgamated into a nation. Thereafte r, the merging of different colonies into one country called Nigeria was forcefully done without the people's consent. This was a major seed of conflict that is still troubling Nigeria today.This article is focused on the historical incidents of ethnic conflicts in within Nigeria societies, the cause of the conflicts and perhaps, the government actions towards ethnic conflict in the country. In conclusion, this paper will explore into decision-making (by the elites and those in authority) process has contributed immensely in generating the syndromes of conflict in the said state. The Nigerian political situation has witnessed more breaking of heads, than counting them. In fact, even when it has been convenient for heads to be counted, the outcome has always been the breaking of heads instead.Conflict in Nigeria is so intense because of lack of democratic behaviour. The head of the individual in the democratic context signifies citizenship. So when heads are broken in the Nigerian po litical community, the issue in respect of broken heads is citizenship. If conflict in Nigeria means the absence of democratic behaviour, it follows, therefore, that conflict in Nigeria is interwoven with the absence of democratic governance. Gurr (2000): has also shown that the incidence of conflicts at the global level declined in recent years with the deepening of democratisation.Nation-states where conflicts persist are those where what obtains is the democratisation of disempowerment (Ake 1996). Beyond the veneer of elections, the state remains ambushed, privatised, repressive and unpopular. The people who were tantalised by the prospect of a democratic revolution that would terminate decades of alienation and pauperisation have been short changed and given a ‘choice less democracy’ (Mkandawire 1999). The ‘credibility gap’ which fostered the De-linkage of the people from the state, and ignited social forces to struggle for democracy, is not being bridg ed (Rothchild 1995: 58).African peoples out of clear rational calculations sans atavistic attachments have turned their backs on the state ‘and given their loyalty to sub-national social formations such as the community, the sub nationality or ethnic groups’ (Ake 2000: 114). It is against this backdrop that the proliferation and exacerbation of violent ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria in the post-transition period can be appreciated. This article adopts an analytical framework that holds that The interface between ethnicity and democratisation is found in absence of effective citizenship and good governance in post-transition societies.In the circumstance that democracy does not go beyond the conduct of multiparty elections to include improvement in the quality of life of the people, there is frustration, and people who already feel alienated from the state are vulnerable and likely to be mobilised around counter-elites who exploit extant popular alienation from the state by whipping up sectarian sentiments. This has been the case in Nigeria and several multi-ethnic states of Africa (Osaghae 1994).Although the foregoing theoretical discussion has focused on ethnicity, the term ethno-religious is adopted because some of the recent violent conflicts to be examined were triggered by religious issues. The relevance of religion is also underlined by the fact that in Nigeria ethnic boundaries tend to coincide with religion, with the exception of the Yoruba ethnic group (Ibrahim 1999). The Nigeria state was amalgamated in the year 1914 by lord lugard. The various geographical areas or territory which was amalgamated to form Nigeria by the colonialist comprises of various cleavages, clans, towns even there were kingdoms and hiefdoms with diverse culture, language, religion, norms values, customs and political structures etc. The focus of the research monogram is to examine the role of religion and ethnicity in Nigeria nascent democracy. In Nigeria esp ecially, religion plays a very vital and influential role in the society that has manifested itself as a potent force in the political development of the Nigerian state from pre-independence to post-independence. Hardly can the Nigerian state be talked about without reference to religion (Kukah, 1994; Falola, 1990; Kenny, 2006; International IDEA, 2000; Suberu, 2009).However, religion in Nigeria, at different levels, is mostly mentioned in negative terms. Or rather, historical events linked to religion tilts more towards its negative than its positive contribution to the Nigerian state. The Jihad, the civil war propaganda, the Sharia law controversy, the tensions provoked by the Nigerian accession to the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) and the incessant religious crises that have engulfed the Northern part mainly indicate that religion cannot be ignored or wished away in the Nigerian political development. Several religious crises have occurred in Nigeria.They have been docu mented as academic dissertations for some of them. This piece of work does not intend to start the discourse on religious violence anew but only recognizes the fact that as a recurrent phenomenon it is worth being explored further. Thus â€Å"Boko Haram† menace which gained global recognition and even press support ranging from July 2009 till date is a the central focus of this study together with other riots which has engulfed the Nigeria state from 1999 till date which most Nigeria educated elite believed that religion and ethnicity were the basic causes.The educated elite have conducted series of research on what the causes of this violent riots maybe. Most have concluded that it can be traced and linked to the failure of governance in Nigeria. 1. 2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS The mistake of 1914 has polarised the Nigeria society together with its citizens in which loyalty to the State is a mirage instead people pay loyalty to their various families and ethnic groups the effect of this can be traced to 1967 civil-war which disintegrate the country or in the political system which almost lead to secession of the country with the easterner believed to be the aggrieved ethnic in the war.Similarly Nigeria has a long history of religious crisis which has affected the political instability of Nigeria. The maintasine riot of 1980 can be said to be the first major religious riot in Nigerian history, claiming about 800 lives. The Boko Haram insurgence in the northern part of the country which has been directed mainly against the Christians, they have suffered a lot both physically, psychologically, economically, spiritually and even politically in the far North which has led political writers and pundits to affirm that Boko Haram conflict has its roots in Religion.The thrust of this work will be to examine the underlying reasons behind political instability in Nigeria using religion and ethnicity as a paradigm. 1. 3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY. The study will cover the impa cts of religion and ethnicity towards the stabilization or in- stabilization of the Nigeria political system it will cover how religion and ethnicity have impacted on the political stability of Nigeria. Furthermore the study will emphasize more on the role the government is playing in stabilizing the un-stabilized country. 1. 4OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The following can be regarded as the aims and objective of the study 1.To know the meaning of religion, ethnicity, political stability, and political instability 2. To know how religion and ethnicity have negatively impacted on Nigerian political development 3. To develop possible solutions and panaceas to the problems of religions and ethnicity to Nigerian political in-stability 1. 5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1 What meaning does religion, ethnicity and political instability carries 2 How has religion and ethnicity impacted on the political stability of Nigeria 3 what are the possible solutions to the problem of religion and ethnicity in Nigeri a political system 1. JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY Many a developing countries of the world are currently experiencing the problems which ethnicity and religion have caused. The ethnic problem which led to the apartheid era in South Africa is also the same ethnicity and religion problem which has almost disintegrated the Nigerian State. Recalling back to what happen during the civil war in the late sixties and early seventies which led to the introduction of the national youth service corp. by the then military president General Yakubu Gowon which aim at integrating back the almost disintegrated country.Books, Journals, Magazines, Pamphlets, and lot of researches have been written and carried out respectively on the issue of ethnicity and religion, and its impact on the Nigeria political stability. This research work will serve as an additional material to the issue on ethnicity and religion to political instability in Nigeria, this work will focus more on ethnicity and religion and its i mpact on Nigerian politics 1. 7RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology will be based on secondary data collections ranging from books, Journals Newspapers, News Magazines, Pamphlets and even the Internet.In conducting any research basically there are two methodologies employed by researchers which are the primary and the secondary methods. This research work will be basically conducted using the secondary methodology as earlier mentioned. 1. 8DEFINITION OF TERMS Ethnicity: According to the oxford advance learners dictionary ethnicity can simply mean â€Å"the fact of belonging to a particular race† from the dictionary meaning we can deduced the fact that Humans believed in race and they have passion for race which leads to humans ethnocentrism i. e. highly ethnocentric in nature.Ethnicity has a strategic interaction of persons and other actors, who have different beliefs, attitude’s, values and goals as they decide particular conflict the distribution of resource ’s and general issues of political rules within a context of norms, expectations and institutions. Any of the rule, expectation and institutions may be reversed, maintained or inverted by the individual who win the right to control them, in the course of those political negotiations that are sometimes called cooperation, and sometimes called war, and are usually somewhere between the two.In another sense, ethnic identity are political resources just like money or vote. Instrumentalist like Micheal Banton and Micheal Hecthtar, argue that ethnic identity are not inherent in group or socio-formation of people. They see ethnic identity as socio-capital brought to bear on the political negotiation table by different groups and at different times. Hutchinson and Smith also argue that ethnic identity are an important resource that political Elite employ in securing the support of the masses as a strategy for gaining a desired good.These goods and or goals are â€Å"measured in term s of wealth, power, and status and†¦ joining or national communities helps to secure these ends either by influencing the state, or in certain situations, through secession. Religion: religion on its own part can be regarded as the belief in the existence of God or gods and the activity that are connected in the worship of them. Religion can also be stress further by meaning one of the system of faith that are based on the belief in the existence of a particular God or gods.For example the Jewish religion, Christianity Islam and other world religion. Furthermore in the classical and ancient ages religion has achieved a lot in their politics for example the doctrine of Islam was used in many Arab nations has their constitution even up till the present age. The Ancient Romans, also, during the time of Constantine accepted Christianity as a religion and a mode of life which also affected their political terrain.Religion in the 21 century is now used narrowly towards Christianity a nd Islam even though other religion still exist but the former two religion have elevated to prominence that other religion are now beneath them. For instance about Political stability: can depict the mean of a system of politics in which the government of that State is experiencing a stable government and peaceful existence in the State or in otherworld’s a legitimately accepted government by the people. Democratically governed States are believed to be stable.In the global sense every political entity must be ruled democratically without internal oppression or external aggression. Any country of the world that is free from the aforementioned point are regarded as stable political system in other words internal oppression has cause a lot of havoc to many democracies of the world which has infringed on their stability as noted by Ojo 2002. Descent Rule: These covers a larger set of cases that we commonly understand to be ethnic than the rules that ethnic groups must have a my th of common ancestry or common origin.But it excludes several cases in which individuals routinely consider themselves, and are considered as members, of a group that we classify as ethnic even when their parents were not coded as members of this group. Take for example the category â€Å"Yoruba† when it was invented in Nigeria in the nineteenth century. At this time period, the parents of those who were classified as Yoruba were not themselves classified as Yoruba for the reason that this category did not exist during their lifetimes.According to Descent Rule, then, the category Yoruba in the nineteenth century would not be coded as ethnic. But the category Yoruba is universally coded as an ethnic category by all comparative political scientists, without making a distinction between time periods. As another example, consider the category â€Å"Backward Caste† in India, which included as members individuals who possessed a given set of last names and/or ancestral occu pations. The category was introduced by the Indian Central Government in 1990.Within a few years, 52% of the Indian population classified itself and was classified as backward. Yet the parents of those who termed themselves â€Å"Backward Caste† were not coded by themselves or by others as â€Å"Backward Caste† because, as in the case of the first generation of Yoruba’s, this category did not exist during their lifetimes Democracy: According to Abraham Lincoln he defines democracy as the government of the people by the people and for the people.In this wise democracy connotes a system of government in which all the people in a country will have the outright say on the government of their country although in a representative manner meaning that they will elect representatives that will represent their interest in the government. Advanced countries if the world where democracy is practiced completely they have national identity as opposed to the developing world w here they have ethnic identity.Advanced democracies always believe in secularism in which every religion is accepted and embraced not a system in which part will have cognisance to a religion and the other will believe in other religion causing serious tension in such states like Nigeria. Federalism : Elasar (cited in Akande, 1996:1)† the formation of European union (EU) which simply begun as a trading partnership for coal and steel is now moving towards a more integrated political union founded upon federal principle of governance†.The African union (AU) which is the federation of African counties where a central government intended to be created with sharing or division of power among the federating unit, even the world highest organization body united Nation have in some little degree, evolved the principle of federalism. Federalism is a system of government which embraces unity in diversity. Federalism as a system of government is one in which there will be central a nd regional governments each one autonomous of each other.

The Value of Digital Privacy in an Information Technology Article

The Value of Digital Privacy in an Information Technology - Article Example And finally, the paper will discuss the electronic privacy laws. The VeriChip: An Implantable Chip: this is a simple technology that involves implanting an electronic chip under the skin of an individual. This chip has the capacity of storing up to six lines of text, and can function as a personal ID number. This chip emits a 125-kilohert radio signal that is received by a special receiver that reads the text signal (Hodge, 2003). The chip once implanted, can track the individual from everywhere he/she goes. The wOzNet: A wearable chip: unlike the VeriChip which is an implantable identification device, the wOzNet is a wearable chip which acts as a commercial identification device (Fortt, 2003). The wOzNet is responsible for tracking a group of inexpensive electronic tags from a central station using Global Positioning Satellite information. In this regard, the transmission of location of information from the chip to the base station is via the same 900-megahertz radio spectrum equivalent to the one used by portable phones (Fortt, 2003). In the event the wOzNet user sets the parameter for notification, the later will generate alerts via phone or e-mail that lets the owner know the position of the one being tracked. Networked Computing: Spyware and Adware: Networked computers together with networking computer programs link different millions of users through the internet. Spyware and adware are controversial computer applications that run on networked computers. Spyware for instance is a program that installs itself without the computer user’s permission, and uses the computer resources without your permission. Spyware are responsible for collecting both non-personal and personal information from networked PCs and delivering adware to specific individuals surfing the Web. Compensated Telemarketing: Listening for Dollars: This technology also allows commercialization of personal information (Foley, 2004). The proposal by Funk and Ayres enables

Piaget and Vygotsky Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Piaget and Vygotsky - Essay Example Both Piaget and Vygotsky have deeply influenced the techniques and approaches to teaching. Furthermore, they have explained the childrens cognitive learning styles and capabilities. Jean Piaget’s theory on children’s cognitive development, particularly with quantitative concepts, has gained a lot of attention within the field of education. Piagetian ideas on student’s quantitative growth have offered teachers teaching mathematics with significant understandings of how individuals acquire mathematical models and phenomenon. Piaget asserted that the development of a child takes place in the course of a constant change of thought processes. A developmental stage entails a period of months or years when a particular development occurs. Even though students are frequently classified by chronological age, their development levels might vary considerably, also the rate at which each child goes through each stage. This variation may be due to maturity, knowledge, society, and the capacity of the child. Piaget further suggested that children develop progressively and slowly throughout the different stages and that the experiences in one stage form the basis for shift to the next. Piaget presented four main stages of development; sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Ojose, 2008). In the sensorimotor stage, an infant’s mental and cognitive characteristics evolve from birth until the emergence of language. This stage is featured by the gradual attainment of object permanence in which the child is able to locate objects after they have been moved, even if the objects have been completely removed from his or her field of vision. Another feature of children at this stage is their capacity to associate numbers to objects (Piaget, 1977). To widen the mathematical ability of a child in this stage, he is permitted sufficient opportunities to take action on the

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Literature Review - Essay Example Literature related to group and teamwork will be reviewed in order to gain full insight of this particular topic and how it impacts on the behaviour of people working in an organization. This topic has been chosen since it is insightful in that it is concerned with illustrating how knowledge gained about groups affect the behaviour of people involved in order to make organizations work more effectively. The paper will also outline a personal reflection about what I have gained from studying this topic as well as areas that need further research to improve the body of knowledge that exists in this particular topic. Text analysis Why do people join groups? A group is defined as â€Å"two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives,† (Robbins, 1993, p. 285). On the other hand, a team is a group of people that has been formed to work together in common, coordinate their action towards the achievement of an outcome of the project for the benefit of the group (Schultz, 2005). There is no single reason why people join a group. The most popular reasons for joining a group are related to our needs for security, status, self esteem, affiliation, power and goal achievement (Robbins, 1993). People often believe that there is more strength in joining groups than standing alone (Robbins, 1993). When people work in a group, they have fewer doubts and they are more resistant to threats. For instance, new employees in an organization often vulnerable to a sense of isolation and this is the reason why the turn to the group for guidance and moral support from other seasoned employees. Other people join a group as a way of gaining status (Robbins, 1993). People tend to gain prestige for belonging to a particular group that is seen as important in an organization. It can also be observed that people belonging to a certain group also develop a sense of self esteem. The feeling of self worth is often developed by people who belong to a prestigious group that is envied by many people. The other reason why people join a group is that they need affiliation with other people (Robbins, 1993). Some people may be very reach but they cannot leave their jobs as a result of the need to interact with others. Groups often represent power and this is the reason why people often join them. What often cannot be achieved individually becomes possible if people work in groups. Essence of group or teamwork in an organization The goal of the team or group should be synergy, in other words, the sum of the individual efforts in the team is greater than the sum of the individual inputs (Schultz 2005). In an organization, people who often pull their efforts towards the attainment of the same goals are likely to succeed in their endeavour than people who work as individuals. It may be difficult for a person to achieve the same goal that can be achieved by a group of people. Basically, organizational goals can be a chieved if people work in groups. Some tasks require the efforts of many people in order for them to be achieved. The main objectives of the organization have to be shared by all the workers so that they share the same understanding towards the vision of the organization. In an organization that is characterised by teamwork, it can be seen that the employees are also motivated to pull

Tell us about 2 activities that is important to you, and why (1 page Essay

Tell us about 2 activities that is important to you, and why (1 page per activity) - Essay Example In similar terms, societal predicaments seem to fascinate a number of people, challenging them to ethically reflect on past transgressions before moving forward towards promising prospects (Katz 70). In a way, reading news articles can make people recall things that had already happened, but still have a way of influencing the habits of the present. All these are important points that are deemed logical to the reason behind the practice of reading daily newspapers. On the part of the writer, all these partly account for the reasons why news articles are important. Most importantly, the act of reading relevant news can stimulate the mind of an academic individual. Although not all people claim this as such, there is a cognitive development happening when new pieces of information are assimilated. Old beliefs are replaced, while blank slates in the mind are rejuvenated. All in all, the act of reading news articles fulfills not only the natural instinct of every person to learn, at best , it promotes the learned response exhibited by a well-read individual. The more one learns, the more open-minded the behavior is towards self and environment in general.

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Can It Be Contained - Essay Example the long association that has been noted between Japanese Zen Buddhism and the prowess and aggression of the military†¦ has argued that the Buddhist kingdom in the South East Asia were due to military self-seeking and military aggressive experiences (Wilkinson and Teague, 46). In an example is a description that was given by Walpola Rahula states that the war that was on national independence in Sri Lanka in the second century BC was conducted was conducted with no consideration of the kingdoms but with consideration and in the name of Buddhism. In another instance after there was replacement of Meiji with restoration feudalism with a state that was dedicated to the oversea expansion and the establishment of Zen, there was a new role that came about which involved nurturing absolute obedience to it and supporting the wars that were of conquest. Zen masters in the 1930s was mainly involved in giving military men Zen training. This was intended at increasing the knowledge that they had on war (Wilkinson and Teague, 79). Buddhist scholars say that there is no justification that the teachings of the religion are associated to war yet there has not been separation of the religion and war. The religion has the traditions associated to violence. There has also been linking the religion to the practices of torture, suicides and also other forms of wars. In the teachings of the religion, there is undertaking the training to abstain from killing but on the other hand, there are also trainings that are given on wars (Wilkinson and Teague, 109). Buddhism in states such as Japan and United States has seen the emergence of giving training for corporate employees that are designed to suppress the problems that are caused by the religion. This shows the degree in which the countries have been involved in covering the bad practices that Buddhism has got into rather than tackling the problem and reducing the wars that

School Reformation Policies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

School Reformation Policies - Essay Example First of all, I would suggest smaller classes with more and highly qualified teachers for disabled students and those with special needs and backgrounds. In addition to reducing the number of students per teacher, more care and time must be afforded to these groups. This would help even the achievement gap that has not been emphasized on at all, in NCLB. For example, both blacks and whites are seen to be equally improving and so the gaps are still left unchecked. This must not be the case, and extra attention must be paid to correct this gap. Special students like the blind for instance, during examinations, must have provisions to have questions read out to them.Secondly, I would urge for measurement of improvement and academic progress per student as opposed to the collective assessment under NCLB. It is possible for schools to retain high ratings even at high achievement gaps since NCLB only measures average school performance. Achieving 100% same-state standards by 2014 as is env isioned in the Act is unrealistic, to say the least as many variables are often involved especially in disability cases. This is a simple illusion.Carris’ Ghosts of No Child Left Behind (2011) further states that the NCLB Act requires only a bare minimum of standards to be met without specific attention to any further improvement beyond the set minimum. It simply groups everyone together as one and discourages any personal talent and improvement in the long run, as all students are simply to be above average. Gifted students are awfully maligned and their enhancement disregarded hence. In some states like Michigan, state funding for gifted and talented programs was cut by up to 90% in the year after the Act became law. I am also of strong opinion that cutting funds for ‘failing’ schools only serves to hinder even more, any chances they have to regroup and improve performance potential. On the contrary, it is my belief that such schools

Library Services Essay Example for Free

Library Services Essay Libraries today have improved their services in order to provide both printed and electronic materials to the users. Majority of students prefer using electronic materials to do their research since it is convenient and faster. In order to become â€Å"information literate† and to successfully deliver successful research project, it is important to locate the relevant information. It is important to understand the difference between doing a critical substantive research and â€Å"surfing the net† (American Library Association, 2003) The first step to undertake when a certain research assignment that requires internet research or library is given is to determine the objectives of the assignment. The student first sets on the section that has the topic of research using the library reference collection. A statement of objectives or background information helps the student to select the appropriate library catalogs, printed indexes and article databases. If the student is conducting an internet search ‘a statement of objectives’ helps him/her to establish the appropriate search tool and locate timely and relevant materials. LIBRARY STRATEGIES After setting and establishing the research objectives, the next step involves breaking down the assignment in to research strategy steps that would help in accomplishing the stated objectives (Dempsey, 2007). The research strategy steps involves first defining the topic using an appropriate book that has the background information or using an encyclopedia. From there a list of keywords and relevant phrases are developed that help in the search. If the research requires printed material, library catalogs, printed indexes and article databases are used to find recent and relevant information in books, journals and magazines. When using electronic materials, keywords are typed on the search engines or internet directories to locate high-quality, relevant and authoritative web sites. Most libraries are co-operating in order to provide developed services to the users. Therefore it is necessary to locate a library that has diversified materials as it would grant recent and quality materials to choose information from a number of books, journals or websites. When searching for materials online, it is important to look for licensed sites to avoid problems with the law. Scholarly articles are the best materials to do a research from as compared to popular sources because they are free from bias. CONCLUSION Library research process can be broken down in to five easy steps namely defining the topic, selecting research resources for the particular topic, locating the information identified in the selected resources, evaluating the resources and finally documenting or citing the resources (American Library Association, 2003). To define a topic involves having clear understanding of the research objectives. The topic of research should be well understood and background search conducted using encyclopedias, subject dictionaries or thesauri, bibliographies or research guides and handbooks. In case it becomes hard to locate a book using library catalogue, the librarian can be requested to give instructions and direction. A concept map is a method used by modern libraries to find information in electronic and print research resources. Selecting resources for research depends on whether the research requires in-depth study or not. If the resources are for basic research, Short Loan collections or articles and books found in Desk Copy can be used. However for an advanced search abstracting journals, indexing publications or electronic journals are used to locate conference papers and articles that are relevant to the topic. Peer reviewed scholarly articles are recommended for conducting research because they go through external editing that verifies the authenticity and accuracy of information presented. Reputable magazines and newspaper are a good source of information so long as they have current information and are objective. All research materials should be properly cited and documented to avoid plagiarism. REFERENCES American Library Association. (2003). Toolkit for academic and research libraries (@ your library: the campaign for Americas libraries). Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Dempsey, L. (2007). The network reconfigures the library systems environment. Retrieved on July 19, 2010 from http://orweblog. oclc. org/archives/001379. html

English Constitution Essay Example for Free

English Constitution Essay The role of the courts and government in judicial review is to ensure that Public authorities act lawfully; all such authorities are subject to the rule of law and are not permitted to act ‘ultra vires’ (beyond their powers). The power that government has comes from powers granted to that authority by statute or delegated legislation. The Human Rights Act 1988 (HRA) created an additional ground s6(1) making it unlawful for public bodies to act in Ð ° way that is incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights. (ECHR)Since the seventeenth century, in the Case of Monopolies 1602 77 ER 1260 the courts have claimed the authority to inquire into the extent and limits of the Crown’s common law prerogative powers. Since 1700, the role of the courts in reviewing administrative and judicial decisions has been explained on the basis of the rule of law whereby any Act or decision was invalid because it was in breach of or unauthorised by the law, or was beyond the scope of the power given to the decision maker by the law (Sunstein, 2001). Limitations of Judicial Review Judicial review is limited to the examination of executive decision and decision made by government authorities; it is Ð ° constitutional function of the High Court to ensure that public bodies and government do not act unlawfully. It acts not in order to give effect to any private rights of the individual who made the application but in order to fulfil the role. It is the examination of Ð ° legal decision by Ð ° public body and it is not an appeal whereby Ð ° decision maybe substituted but Ð ° review of that decision only. Judicial review is only concerned with the lawfulness and not with the merits of Ð ° decision. Attorney General v Fulham Corporation, ex relatione Yapp [1921] whereby the High Court granted Ð ° declaration that the council had acted unlawfully and Cooper v Wandsworth Board of Works (1863) 14 CB NS 180 that the council had acted unfairly and had failed to exercise their statutory power lawfully. The Primary Purpose of Judicial Review The primary purpose of judicial review was summarised by Lord Lindley MR in Roberts v Gwyrfai District Council [1899] 2 CH 608, 614: â€Å" I know of no duty of the Court which is more important to observe, and no power of the Court which is more important to enforce, than its power of keeping public bodies within their rights. The instant public and government bodies go beyond their constitutional rights they act so to damage and domination of private persons, and those individuals are allowed to be protected from harm arising from such operations of public bodies† (Sunstein, 2001 p47) In the case of Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374 (GCHQ Case), Lord Diplock observed that: â€Å"The theme of every judicial review is Ð ° judgment made by some person or government body whom I shall name the ‘decision mÐ °ker’ or else Ð ° refusÐ °l by him to mÐ °ke Ð ° decision† In latest years judicial review has extended to private bodies which can be said to exercise Ð ° public function, R v City Panel of Takeover and Mergers, ex parte Datafin Ltd [1987] 2 QB 815Lord Diplock stated in the GCHQ case, that three actions that give grounds for Judicial review are illegality, irrationality and procedural impropriety (Merrill, 2001). Illegality, for example Ð ° government body misinterpreting legislation Anismimic Ltd V Foreign Compensation [1969] 2 AC 147, or acting ultra vires (acting beyond its prescribed power) AG v Fulham Corporation case, or making Ð ° judicial error of fact R v Secretary of State for Home Department, ex parte Khawaja [1984] AC 74, or unlawfully delegating power or fettering discretion Port of London Authority, ex parte Kynoch Ltd [1919] 1 KB 176 or where power is exercised by someone who does not meet the qualifications laid down in the granting of power, the act must be considered illegal, Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 ST Tr 1030 and Allingham v The Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries [1948] 1 All ER 780. In Vine v The National Dock Labour Board [1957] AC 488 Lord Somervell of Harrow said that in deciding whether there is such Ð ° power, two factors have to be considered â€Å"the nature of power and the character of the person†Irrationality, the decision of Ð ° public body is irrational if it is ‘so unreasonable that no reasonable body could have come to the decision† Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corp [1948] 1 KB 223 or ‘so outrageous in its defiance of logic or accepted moral standards that no sensible person who applied his mind to the question could have arrived at the decision’ Lord Diplock GCHQ case, Unreasonableness includes acting for improper motives, failing to take account of relevant considerations, failing to respect the requirements of natural justice and fettering discretion by adopting Ð ° rigid policy. With irrationality the courts have moved on from reviewing the procedures by which Ð ° decision has been made and testing its legality to substituting the courts own view on the merits of the decisionThe standard of reasonableness imposed by the courts is high. If the standard were too low it would mean that judicial discretion was being substituted for administrative discretion (Merrill, 2001). However, the protection of human rights has allowed the courts to use jurisdiction to employ Ð ° stricter test than in other Wednesbury cases, R v Lord Saville of Newdigate ex parte Brind (no 2) [1991] 1 All ER 720 (Merrill, 2001).

Raja Mandala Theory And Its Relevance History Essay

Raja Mandala Theory And Its Relevance History Essay Chanakya stated that every state is surrounded by many states, out of which one would be a natural adversary. Other states might be allies, vassals, neutrals or hostile. The king should focus on the natural adversary and defeat it. Chanakya advised the king to be pragmatic in his approach towards his enemies and prudence in choice of foreign policy. He was against spineless surrender or foolhardy valour. He preferred peace over war in most cases. He said that when the degree of progress to be made from choosing between war and peace were same, the king must choose peace. He took into consideration the losses of troops, expenditure and absence from home while giving this advice. He also said that if the balance of power were not to become favourable as a result of war, peace must be chosen.  [28]   Circle of States According to Chanakya, the king, his friend, and his friends friend are the three primary kings constituting a circle of states. As each of these three kings possesses another five elements of sovereignty; such as the minister, the country, the fort, the treasury, and the army; a circle of states consists of eighteen elements. The three Circles of States having the enemy, the middle king, or the neutral king at the centre of each of the three circles are different from that of the conqueror. Thus there are four primary Circles of States, twelve kings, sixty elements of sovereignty, and seventy-two elements of states. Each of the twelve primary kings have their elements of sovereignty, power, and end. Strength is power, and happiness is the end. Strength is of three types: power of deliberation being the intellectual strength; a prosperous treasury and a strong army being the strength of sovereignty; and martial power being the physical strength. The end too is of three kinds: that which is attainable by deliberation is the end of deliberation; that which is attainable by the strength of sovereignty is the end of sovereignty; and that which is to be secured by perseverance is the end of martial power. The possession of power and happiness in a greater degree makes a king superior to another; in a less degree, inferior; and in an equal degree, equal. Therefore the king was always required to augment his power and elevate his happiness.  [29]   Six Methods of Foreign Policy The states participate in diplomacy and war using the six methods of foreign policy. To understand the concept of Raja Mandala theory, the six methods of foreign policy enunciated by Chanakya must be understood. These cater for different situations in international relations.  [30]   (a) Samdhi. The peace treaties were to be concluded with specific conditions that enabled the state to promote welfare and development, strengthen alliances or use the period as one arm of dual policy. Chanakya said that treaty could even be entered into with ones enemy and may be broken when one grows strong. The interests of the state being supreme, such betrayals were justified. (b) Vigraha. The policy of hostility was recommended to be followed by the stronger state. The hostilities could be conducted as open, secret, undeclared or clandestine attacks. Diplomatic wars too were discussed extensively by Chanakya. Having had to fight conventional and proxy wars, India in addition to fighting militarily, has been dealing with this on a diplomatic level as well. (c) Asana. The policy of remaining neutral was recommended by Chanakya to be followed when both states were equal. The Chinese observed neutrality in the cold war between USA and erstwhile USSR and utilized their efforts towards development. India was the leading proponent of non-alignment and in following the policy was able to get the best of both the Western and Eastern Blocs. India must be amongst the few nations in the world that can acquire weapon systems, nuclear technology, industrial knowhow and even support for permanent membership of UNSC from USA and Russia. (d) Yana. Posturing for war was an important decision that the king had to take. The preparation for war and the long march entailed heavy expenditure and prolonged absence from the capital, thus necessitated careful consideration before taking such a decision. After the attack on Parliament on 13 December 2001, the armed forces were mobilised. The forces remained in the offensive posture for a complete year. While the war never took place, many skirmishes on the line of control occurred. The tensions on the line of control brought international pressure upon Pakistan resulting in imposition of sanctions on the terrorist groups and the leaders in February 2002. The continued pressure resulted in a ceasefire agreement in 2003 that holds good till date. (e) Samsraya. The policy of seeking protection of a stronger king could be practised by entering into alliances or by signing a treaty. Various alliances formed during the cold war indicate that this policy is relevant even today. In 1971 when war with Pakistan was imminent, India signed a treaty of Friendship with USSR as a safeguard against intervention by USA and China on behalf of Pakistan. Pakistans alliance with China in can be seen as a means of seeking protection against India. (f) Dvaidhibhava. This was the policy of seeking peace with one king in order to pursue hostilities with another. China, which has territorial disputes with both India and Japan, maintains cordial relations with one while getting into a diplomatic row with other in order to channelize the complete effort of the state to achieve the objectives it sets for itself. 81. Special Cases. Chanakya envisaged certain situations wherein he considered the role of kings who could influence the outcome of a conflict without being directly involved. In context of India-Pakistan relations, China could be classified as middle king as described by Chanakya. Pakistan could create some problems in the course of Sino-India conflict, but would not fit the description of a middle king, being weaker than both India and China. However, USA, Russia and even UN fit the bill of a neutral king, a king who is more powerful than the belligerents but does not share the borders with the two. Parshingraha. The attack in the rear in diplomatic, economic or psychological sphere had been described as an important aspect of foreign policy by Chanakya. It could be in form of posturing or supporting insurgency movements as well. China has been increasing her influence in Indias neighbourhood through economic and diplomatic initiatives. In the last week of November 2012, Maldives annulled the contract of an Indian firm soon after its cabinet had returned from China. India too has developed closer ties with countries like Afghanistan, Iran, Mongolia, Japan, South Korea and Vietnam in order to counter the influence of Pakistan and China in their neighbourhood.  [31]   Objectives of Foreign Policy Chanakya said that the objective of foreign policy was to increase the power of a state. Military, intellect and morale were vital components of power according to Chanakya  [32]  . The king had to continuously project his power by using appropriate foreign policy. The dynamic relationship between power and progress was essential to be understood and had to be attained through implementing the right policy and correct execution within the circle of states. Both India and China have been projecting their power in a different ways. While India has laid emphasis on soft power, China has embraced the policy of projecting comprehensive national power to included military and economic might in addition to its cultural influence around the world to exert influence on the policies of other nations. Chanakya had said that peace could be made with the enemy albeit as a temporary measure to gain time to enhance own power. The wars in modern era are also fought on economic and cyber space. Both India and China are growing economies and the growth is expected to stabilise in another 20 to 30 years. They have bilateral trade running into billions of dollars every year despite being rivals for markets and captive resources. If the two were to engage in any form of war at present, the impact on their growth would be catastrophic. Moreover, the modern economies being inter-woven, it would have a domino effect on all the leading economies of the world. Thus, the setback the two countries would receive would be dynamic and would set their progress back in a big way. The two countries have adopted a very pragmatic approach and cooperate at various international and not let the disputes over boundary or South China Sea over shadow the areas of cooperation. China maintains friendly relations with India at the same time supports Pakistan in all its misadventures. China has invested a great deal in infrastructure in Pakistan. The armed forces of Pakistan are being equipped by the Chinese at a frantic pace. China has little to gain directly from Pakistan except for access to the sea through Gwadar Port  [33]  . The main purpose of propping up Pakistan is to divert Indias focus. Although growing at a fast pace, the resources with India are limited and thus can optimally focus on one front only. Relative Power. Chanakya said that the king must always strive to enhance his power in comparison to the enemy. The relative power can be improved by making oneself stronger or by denuding the power of the enemy.  [34]   Indias military strength is dissipated on two fronts externally and internal security duties. India must strengthen her relations with Japan, Taiwan, South Korea and other littorals of South China Sea to force China to focus on many fronts at the same time. USA has provided all possible help to India in recent years to make China focus more on India. The aim of USA is to further her own interests in the Pacific Ocean region, Indian Ocean and the oil rich West Asia. The policymakers have to be careful in using the US card while dealing with China. Reliance on USA to provide deterrence against China, though beneficial in short term, would be counterproductive in long run. India will have to become stronger economically, diplomatically and militarily to enhance her relative power in long run. Having realised her inferiority in conventional battlefield, Pakistan resorted to proxy war. The diversion of resources of Indian Army helped it achieve parity on the conventional battlefield. India responded by raising Rashtriya Rifles Battalions to deal with insurgency. The situation is now returning to normalcy. In 1998, Pakistan tested nuclear weapons in response to trials by India. The acquisition of nuclear weapons and missile delivery system by Pakistan gave her the deterrence capability and thus it avoided a war in 2002. However, the development of ballistic missile defence system by India would nullify the deterrence capability built by Pakistan  [35]  . Relative power is dynamic and its balance continues to change at all times. Every move by India, China or Pakistan draws response by the adversary. India would have to continually monitor the development in China, Pakistan and also within the countries that can be described as the inner circle of these countries in the circle of states. Preference of Peace Over Conflict The king had to adopt policies that would enhance the power of the state and economic and material well being of its subjects. This would necessitate improving infrastructure, increasing avenues for employment, to exploit mines and natural resources, and at the same time to deter similar progress of the enemy. A state that was in a position to grow in power more rapidly both in quality and quantity than the adversary could neglect the enemys progress some time. Two states were to make peace when growth could be achieved by doing so. Hostility with the enemy was to be opened if it ensured better growth than the enemy. If the adversaries were neither in a position to destroy the progress of each other nor in a position to safeguard their own progress in case of hostilities, every endeavour was to be made to maintain peace.  [36]   Pakistan. India is developing faster than Pakistan in all fields. The tool of Jihad that had been used by Pakistan to disrupt peace in India and to enable USA fight USSR in Afghanistan has become bane for very existence of Pakistan. Peaceful and stable Pakistan is essential for Indias growth.  [37]  India has offered assistance to Pakistan to help her overcome these challenges. Chanakya had advocated destruction of enemy as and when the opportunity presented itself. The world order today is different from the times of Chanakya. Any hostile act by India would bring immediate sanctions from the comity of nations and thus will destroy the economic progress and well being of the state. Moreover, if the state of Pakistan were to disintegrate, the terrorist groups would reign supreme and they would most likely target India like never before. A large swell of refugees would migrate and cause demographic and economic catastrophe for India. The population that has been brought up on the staple of blaming India for every misery will turn their anger against India. Thus, when seen in the larger context, the policy being adopted by India is in sync with Chanakyas thought process that professes economic growth and welfare of citizens as a primary duty of the state. China. Despite the size of the GDPs and the growth rate, India and China are yet to acquire a truly middle class status. The Chinese economy is industry driven while Indian economy is services driven. In order to continue on the path of growth, both need to add millions of new jobs every year.  [38]  The creation of so many new jobs requires unhindered economic activities. The present path of economic growth leaves adequate space for both the states to coexist peacefully. In order to create millions of jobs every year, India will have to change to an industrial economy. In a decade or two, the two countries would end up competing for the raw materials and markets. This could lead to conflict between the two. It would be prudent for India to develop her military capabilities. Improvement in human development index would ensure that the manpower is educationally and technically qualified to absorb the technology at the given time. India is surrounded by large number of small countries that are being wooed by China. These countries resent the perceived big brotherly attitude of India. In November 2012, the government of Maldives cancelled the contract of GMR for development of the airport. Nepal-India relations have taken a downward spiral due to neglect by Indian government as well as the bureaucracys inflexible and inconsistent behaviour. One of the glaring examples of such neglect is the absence visit to Nepal by any of the Indian Prime Ministers, since 2002  [39]  . Bangladesh too has been antagonised over Indias reluctance to finalise the water sharing agreement. India has to work towards bringing these countries back to her fold. Dealing with Threats Posed by China and Pakistan using Arthashastra Forging Alliances/ Partnership. (a) Chanakya was of the opinion that forging alliances should be resorted to when needed  [40]  . War being one of the methods of executing foreign policy of the nation, the diplomacy has to garner a favourable opinion and if not, at least a neutral attitude from the comity of nations. (b) From the very beginning Pakistan entered into military alliances like CENTO and SEATO. India entered into a 20 year treaty of friendship with USSR. Since the 90s Pakistan became closer to China to overcome the impact of sanctions imposed by USA. The alliance between Pakistan and China assures Pakistan of some degree of deterrence against India. (c) India has forged closer relations with USA and maintained the historical relations with Russia. The cooperation achieved has been catalyst in enabling the Indian military to modernize at a rapid pace, thus gradually building up a deterrence capability against China. Herein India needs to maintain a very fine balance, as close relations with USA, China and Russia are important for the development of the country. The challenge for India is to manage her ties in such a manner that she is not seen as leaning towards any country in particular, nor is seen as a country that is indecisive. (d) USA. During the visit of Mr Leon Panetta in June 2012, India politely told USA that there is a need to re-calibrate the US policy called Rebalancing of Military Strategy with focus on Asia-Pacific that envisages deployment of at least 60% of US Naval assets in Asia-Pacific  [41]  . The concern of India being that the policy would increase the militarisation in its immediate neighbourhood and such rapid militarisation would throw Indias modernisation plans out of gear. (e) India has enhanced bilateral cooperation with US and participates in a number of joint military exercises without entering into any formal military alliance. The support that had been extended by USA to Pakistan in last half a century plays in the minds of Indian policy makers while deciding on the extent of military cooperation with USA. The US insistence on signing CISMOA, LSA, EUMA and BECA make the policy makers in India sceptical. Moreover, by openly embracing USA, India does not want to upset China  [42]  . (f) Littorals of South China Sea. India has indicated that she would prefer cooperation with countries like Japan, Vietnam, Philippines and others in working out an amicable solution to the South China Sea dispute. In last few years, India has participated in number of military exercises with Japan, Singapore and Vietnam. If the navies of these countries enforce a blockade of Malacca and Sunda Straits, China will be put on the back foot. The entire transhipment of oil and gas would then be channelised through Arakan region of Myanmar and Gwadar port in Pakistan. The domination of Bay of Bengal and Arabian Seas by the Indian Navy would quickly result in enforcing a blockade to shape the outcome of war. (g) Myanmar. India has improved her relations with the Myanmar in recent years. The people of Kachin have been known to resent Chinese activities in the region. India should exploit this resentment and persuade the government of Myanmar to limit the Chinese activities, China can be further contained. (h) Iran. To avoid the SLOCs dominated by India, China needs to open a transhipment route through Central Asia. The Chabahar and Bandar Abbas ports in Iran could be the ports of transhipment. India lost some ground in Iran after siding with USA over nuclear issue. By attending the NAM conference in Tehran, Dr Manmohan Singh tried to make some amends to the earlier mistakes. In his visit, the Indias energy and security issues were discussed by the PM  [43]  . (j) Iran could be a partner of strategic significance for India. The relations between Pakistan and Iran took a downward spiral during the 80s whereas India and Iran cooperated in supporting the Tajik groups opposed to Pakistan backed Pashtun groups in Afghanistan. Pakistan became closer to Saudi Arabia, who is a staunch rival of Iran. The officials of Iran and Pakistan have accused each other of aiding the insurgents in Baluchistan  [44]  . (k) India has stood by its commitments in Iran despite the pressure from US and EU. China too has supported Iran and done so more boldly than India. In addition to the vast reserves of oil and gas, Iran is significant as it is a littoral state of Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea. It provides a gateway to the landlocked Central Asian Republics. China has been wooing Iran to gain a foothold in West Asia and enhance energy security. The route from Iran, Central Asian Region (CAR) and into China would enable China to avoid the SLOCs that are vulnerable to interception by India and other South East Asian countries. (l) It is unlikely that Iran would become a party to containing Chinese influence due to her animosity with USA. However, India should work towards exploiting Irans sensitivities towards developments in Baluchistan and Afghanistan and Pakistans proximity to Saudi Arabia. India should exploit get Iran onboard in containing Pakistan from the West. (m) Afghanistan. Afghanistan has been apprehensive of Pakistans intentions in the region. On many occasions President Karzai has blamed Pakistan for the troubles in his country. Pakistans open support to Taliban means that barring South and Eastern Afghanistan, rest of the country is unlikely to warm up to Pakistan in near future. Afghans are known to be fond of Indian culture. Indias contribution towards development activities in Afghanistan has further endeared her to the Afghans. Unlike China, India has not yet acquired any stakes in the unexplored natural resources of the country. (n) India should work very closely with the Afghan government and keep Pakistan out of the region. India must be prepared to provide security forces for filling the void left by the withdrawal of ISAF in 2014. The aid being provided to Afghanistan could be linked with keeping Pakistan out. India must ensure that Taliban does not gain entry into Afghan political arena. This would deny the strategic depth that Pakistan so badly craves.  [45]   Create a Divide between China and Pakistan. Chanakya talked of creating division amongst the enemy to weaken them. Sino- Pakistan relations are not as deep as are made out to be. China tilts towards Pakistan to secure its own geopolitical interests. It props up Pakistan militarily to keep Indias armed forces engaged on the Western borders. The Gwadar port and Karakoram highway provide China with an overland trade j and Islamists in Pakistan  [46]  . (a) Make Gwadar Port Unviable Option. The port held a vision of prosperity for Pakistan and to provide the Pakistan Navy with strategic depth along its coastline. It provided China with an opportunity to diversify its oil import routes and extend its presence in the Indian Ocean. Chinas interests in Gwadar port are to diversify and secure its crude oil import oil routes and to extend its presence in the Indian Ocean.  [47]  It would enable monitoring naval activities of both US India in the region. (b) India Iran have had reservations about the project from beginning. Iran responded by constructing Chabahar port and road links joining Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan with Indias assistance. Plans to extend a road from Iran through Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif and Sherkhan Bandar in Afghanistan and onwards to China too have been discussed.  [48]   (c) The fragile state of lines of communication in POK region was highlighted in January 2010 when the Attabad landslide cut off the Karakoram highway  [49]  . The Baluchistan province in Pakistan remains restive with ever increasing levels of violence. (d) Iran remains peaceful and stable making Chabahar port more attractive alternative to Gwadar. China has repeatedly used its veto power in support of Iran over the nuclear standoff. Irans energy reserves and good relations with Afghanistan Central Asian countries are of significance to China as well. India and Iran enjoy good relations. Like Iran, India too enjoys good relations with Afghanistan and Central Asian countries. If situation in Afghanistan stabilises in near future, Iran remains peaceful but Balochistan remains restive, use of Chabahar would become more attractive and economical in comparision to Gwadar. (d) Chinas Aspirations as a Super Power. Most of the incidents of terrorism in the world have been tracked back to Pakistan. Despite its contribution in the GWOT, Pakistan is viewed as a state that harbours terrorists and fundamentalists. Osama Bin Laden was killed in a safe house located within a few kilometres of Pakistans military academy. As an aspiring super power, China will have to pressurise Pakistan to rein in the fundamentalist and terrorist groups. Aspirations of China and Pakistans support to terrorist groups make the two to partners who cannot be natural allies. India should take every opportunity to highlight this issue at various forums and bilateral meets. The academicians and the think tanks should be asked to write articles and papers that would embarrass China on this issue. When Pakistan looses Chinas support, it would be forced to change its policies and thus the menace of terrorism would reduce to a very large extent. The probability of external war on two front s would also be minimised. (e) Uyghur Separatists Movement. Since its incorporation into China in 1950s, Uighurs have organized more than 400 uprisings  [50]  . The ethnic strife has taken a religious twist in the last few years  [51]  . The Chinese leaders have expressed apprehension that Pakistan may not be able to contain the links between the separatists and the Islamists in Pakistan. China had in the past resorted to curtailing border trade and closing the Karakoram Highway to contain the unrest. Such measures send a signal to Pakistan that China would not hesitate to freeze the relations if required, in order to curtail the separatist movement  [52]  . Engaging Neighbours. Chanakya in his treatise had been categorical that a friendly or a neutral neighbour is essential for the growth and stability of a state. He also warned against the dangers of an adversary becoming influential in the neighbourhood. China has been using her diplomatic and economic clout in marginalising Indias influence in the neighbourhood. Indian government has to understand that these nations are on the development curve and therefore need huge investments. For many years India invested in the development of these countries to the extent she could. China has bigger reserve of foreign exchange than India and is ready to suffer economic losses in short term. The investments made by China have enhanced her influence in these countries. The government of India has started exploring the historical and cultural links and soft power to strengthen relations with the neighbours. The Indian government provides billions of dollars as aid to Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan. It has entered into trade agreements with all her neighbours that may be more favourable to the neighbours than to India. The volume of trade between India and her neighbouring countries has steadily increased in the recent years. The efforts have yielded positive results. Sri Lankan officials have been harping about the very good and very ancient links with India. The aid to the displaced Tamils is not viewed with scorn as in earlier times. Homage was paid to the martyrs of the IPKF in Sri Lanka in 2012. India-Pakistan trade has been on the rise with Indian exports to Pakistan surging by over 30% per year  [53]  . The Awami League government in Bangladesh is working towards generating a favourable public opinion towards permitting transit facilities to India and the Indian government too has shown inclination towards signing a treaty on sharing of river waters. With Myanmar, relations have been growing stronger. Aang San Suu Kyi visited India in 2012. The economic ties and trade have grown manifolds in recent years. India still has work to do on improving relations with Nepal. The relations with Nepal have been stagnant since the Maoists came to power. With Maldives, relations took a downturn over the con troversy over the operating of international airport in Male by GMR. The Government of India suspended monetary aid to Maldives as a retaliation to revoking of the GMRs contract by the Maldives government. Engaging China and Pakistan till Own Military Capability is Developed. To realise their true potential, India and China need an environment of peace and stability. Both the countries have kept the disputes on the back burner while focussing on areas of convergence. The trade between both has been growing at a steady rate and is expected to touch $100 billion in 2015.  [54]  Talks to resolve the boundary disputes continue to be held at regular intervals. Talks with Pakistan have made a slower progress in recent years. CBMs have been in place for many years. The two countries have signed an agreement to ease visa restrictions.  [55]  Sporting ties too are being resumed between the two countries. Such measures will bring the people closer and thus create pressure on the governments to resolve the disputes at the earliest. 107. Chanakya identified military option as an important facet of foreign policy. The government of India seeks peaceful coexistence with the neighbours. However, to safeguard her nati

Music as Cultural Criticism Essays -- Music Musical Culture History Es

Music as Cultural Criticism Works Cited Not Included In his article â€Å"Daily Life in Black Africa: Elements for a Critique,† author Paulin Houtondji offers his perceptions of several aspects of life in Africa. His statements are explicit, observant, harsh, and backed up with examples and anecdotes. Many African pop musicians provide similarly critical assessments of various aspects of African life, but they choose to do so in a much subtler way. Houtondji’s criticism of Africa for its serious failure is similar to that of artists like musician E.T. Mensah, who uses upbeat music to lessen the sting of his subversive lyrics. In fact, so deceivingly happy is the sound of the music that missing the entire message of the song is highly possible. His candor and blatancy in expressing his opinion, however, also parallels the work of artists like Fela Kuti, Unsung Heroes, and Prophets of Da City. Though Houtondji and many musicians share the common goal of improving society, or at least highlighting its flaws, the parties focus on different aspects of society, and probably garner different results. To a Western reader, Houtondji and his writings may seem more serious, scholarly, and even competent, even for such a simple reason as a societal bias towards the written word over the spoken. On the other hand, taking into account the low literacy rates in much of Africa, as well as the aural language, the situation may be the opposite in Africa. The spoken, or sung, word should prove highly effective in addressing social wrongs, suggesting societal change, or calling people to action. Using words as weapons is not uncommon, and they are effective both set to music and written. A preliminary reading of Houtondji’s article leads to a c... ...such injustices. Words are often used as effective weapons in written and verbal war. Though seemingly non-violent, these conflicts contain elements of violence, and can thus prove highly painful. In his article â€Å"Daily Life in Black Africa: Elements for a Critique,† author Paulin Houtondji criticizes superficial problems in daily life in Africa, while hinting at the issues of the bigger picture. Similar to this approach, E.T. Mensah uses music to soften the blow of his loaded words. Other pop musicians, such as Fela Kuti, choose not to be sensitive to their audiences, and instead assault them with politically charged lyrics, calling them to action and demanding social change. Both approaches and styles are effective, but an audience’s receptiveness and perception may be the most important determining factors of an artist’s success in issuing a call for change.

Peter Brook Essay -- essays research papers fc

It is noted in many books that near the start of his career, Peter Brook was attracted to both plays and techniques that expressed human contradiction. He often wondered, though, whether there were any modern playwrights who could possibly equal the richness and complexity of Shakespearean verse, and often complained about the improbability of ever finding material to work on or to produce as stimulating as that of Shakespeare. When, in 1964, Brook received a play entitled The Persecution and Assassination of Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade (Marat/Sade), by German playwright Peter Weiss, it is also noted that Brook felt he had finally encountered the challenge of Shakespearean theater he was looking for. Not only was Marat/Sade an incredibly well written and unique approach to theater as a whole, its incorporation of music and movement, song and montage, and naturalism and surrealism within the text created the perfect passage, for Brook, from his commercial past to his experimental present, as well as a way for both the playwright and the director to deal with the concept of theater as therapy; a rather ironic, yet at the same time clever, idea seeing as how the play itself is conducted within the confines of an asylum, with the inmates themselves as the stars. One of the most complex aspects of presenting Marat/Sade was its large and eclectic cast of characters and also its incorporation of a play within a play. On stage, these points were, looking at the opinions of a majority of both the audiences and the critics, presented successfully by Brook and the cast he worked with. From the prison guards who loomed in the background, clothed in butcher aprons and armed with clubs, to the half-naked Marat, slouched in a tub and covered in wet rags, forever scratching and writing, to the small group of singers, dressed and painted up as clowns, to the narcoleptic but murderous Charlotte Corday, Weiss and Brook offered a stage production that both engaged and amazed the audience, while at the same time forced them to question their role as the audience; no better exemplified than at the very end of the play, where the inmates, standing menacingly at the edge of the stage, actually begin to applaud the very people who applaud their performance, aggravating and confusing some, but forcing most t... ...m, though they are quite safe behind a large facade of iron bars. This technique corresponds to the menacing way that the characters address the camera throughout the performance, and creates the necessary feeling, for the viewers, that no such barrier is available to protect them as they are drawn in uncomfortably closer to the inmates by Brook’s camerawork. We begin to question whether or not the soliloquies, spoken directly into the camera instead of to the protected aristocrats who originally played our ‘part’ of the audience, are still merely just a theater convention, or if the insanity of the performers is used as a catalyst for we, ourselves, to feel threatened directly by what is spoken. We also begin to question whether or not the inmate is even looking at the camera to address the audience, or is simply insane, and addressing the air around them, adding yet another layer to such complex characters. Creating such questions within the audience’ s mind also seems to create, for most, the aura of discomfort and skepticism that Brook was aiming to achieve, and reached quite successfully. Bibliography Lunatics, Lovers, and Poets by Margaret Croyden